『每日軍事武器鑑賞』－ KC-135R「同溫層」 加油機

克里斯Chris

KC-135R Stratotanker

The KC-135 Stratotanker's primary mission is to refuel long-range bombers. It also provides aerial refueling support to Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps and allied aircraft.

Four turbojets, mounted under wings swept 35 degrees, power the KC-135. Nearly all internal fuel can be pumped through the tanker's flying boom, the KC-135's primary fuel transfer method. A special shuttlecock-shaped drogue, attached to and trailed behind the flying boom, is used to refuel aircraft fitted with probes. An operator stationed in the rear of the plane controls the boom. A cargo deck above the refueling system holds passengers or cargo. Depending on fuel storage configuration, the KC-135 can carry up to 83,000 pounds (37,350 kilograms) of cargo.

The KC-135 tanker fleet made an invaluable contribution to the success of Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf, flying around-the-clock missions to maintain operability of allied warplanes. The KC-135s form the backbone of the Air Force tanker fleet, meeting the aerial refueling requirements of bomber, fighter, cargo and reconnaissance forces, as well as the needs of the Navy, Marines and allied nations.


Background
Because the KC-135A's original engines are of 1950s technology, they don't meet modern standards of increased fuel efficiency, reduced pollution and reduced noise levels. By installing new, CFM56 engines, performance is enhanced and fuel off-load capability is dramatically improved. In fact, the modification is so successful that two-re-engined KC-135Rs can do the work of three KC-135As.

This improvement is a result of the KC-135R's lower fuel consumption and increased performance which allow the tanker to take off with more fuel and carry it farther. Since the airplane can carry more fuel and burn less of it during a mission, it's possible to transfer a much greater amount to receiver aircraft.

The quieter, more fuel-efficient CFM56 engines are manufactured by CFM International, a company jointly owned by SNECMA of France, and General Electric of the U.S. The engine is an advanced-technology, high- bypass turbofan; the military designation is F108-CF-100. Related system improvements are incorporated to improve the modified airplane's ability to carry out its mission, while decreasing overall maintenance and operation costs. The modified airplane is designated a KC-135R.

Because the KC-135R uses as much as 27 percent less fuel than the KC-135A, the USAF can expect huge fuel savings by re-engining its fleet of KC-135s - about $1.7 billion over 15 years of operation. That's enough to fill the gas tanks of some 7.7 million American cars each year for a decade and a half. Annual savings are estimated to be about 2.3 to 3.2 million barrels of fuel, about three to four percent of the USAF's annual fuel use. This equals the fuel needed to provide electrical power for 145 days to a city of 350,000 to 400,000.

Re-engining with the CFM56 engines also results in significant noise reductions. Area surrounding airports exposed to decibel noise levels is reduced from over 240 square miles to about three square miles. This results in a reduction in the noise impacted area of more than 98 percent. Maximum take-off decibel levels drop from 126 to 99 decibels. This meets the tough U.S. Federal Air Regulation standards -- a goal for commercial aircraft operated within the U.S. In addition, smoke and other emission pollutants are reduced dramatically.

Boeing has delivered approximately 400 re-engined KC-135Rs and is under contract for about 432 re-engine kits. Each kit includes struts, nacelles, 12.2 miles of wiring, and other system modification components. Engines are purchased directly by the Air Force from CFM International.

Boeing has completed work on a program to re-engine all KC-135As in the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard fleet -- a total of 161 airplanes. In that modification program, which began in 1981, KC-135As were modified with refurbished JT3D engines taken from used, commercial 707 airliners. After modification, the airplanes are designated KC-135Es. This upgrade, like the KC-135R program, boosts performance while decreasing noise and smoke pollution levels. The modified KC-135E provides 30 percent more powerful engines with a noise reduction of 85 percent.

The program included acquisition of used 707s, procurement of purchased parts and equipment, basic engineering, some parts manufacturing, and refurbishment and installation of the engines, struts and cowling. Kits also included improved brakes, cockpit controls and instruments.

克里斯Chris

The Multi-Point Refueling System Program is an effort to enhance the efficiency and flexibility of the Air Force旧 air refueling fleet, 45 KC-135R Stratotanker aircraft are being outfitted to accept wing-tip, hose-and-drogue and air refueling pods for refueling NATO and US Navy aircraft. US Navy and many NATO aircraft cannot be refueled using the boom and receptacle refueling method of Air Force aircraft, and instead use a probe-and-drogue system where probes on the receiver aircraft make contact with a hose that is reeled out behind a tanker aircraft. With the number of worldwide joint and combined military operations on the rise, the Department of Defense directed the Air Force to outfit part of its KC-135 fleet with the capability of refueling both probe-and-drogue and boom receptacle aircraft on the same mission. This also allows refueling up to two probe-and-drogue aircraft at the same time. Managed by the KC-135 Development System Office at Aeronautical Systems Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, hte program completed the engineering, manufacturing and development portion of the program in 1998 year and began follow-on operational test and evaluation early in 1999.

With projected modifications, the KC-135 will fly and refuel into the next century. A new aluminum-alloy skin grafted to the underside of the wings will add 27,000 flying hours to the aircraft. Aircraft corrosion presents a significant challenge to AMC. It is presently difficult if not impossible to model this major life limiting factor over long periods of time. Technologies required to deal with corrosion have not evolved, leaving AMC with a deficiency that of not knowing exactly how long its older aircraft will operate economically. At current use rates, the KC-135 aircraft structure should remain sound. The fleet is projected to be in the Air Force service well into the next century. In fact, calculations using a predicted structural service life of 70,000 hours (structural data only) and based on current annual flight hours reveal that the structural life could extend into the twenty-second century. However, these numbers taken alone are misleading as they do not include the effects of corrosion.

克里斯Chris

Most experts agree that the R-model and T-model will continue to operate economically well into the next century. The R-models maintenance capability and reliability rates are among the highest of any weapon system AMC operates, and its operating cost is the lowest. The E-model economic service life is markedly different because of the difference in age and technology of some of its major components, most notably the engines. The basic airframe should, in theory, last as long as the R-model, but the age of the engines points to the likelihood that upkeep could become expensive (in terms of parts and maintenance man-hours). The TF-33 (E-model) engines were previously used but refurbished to an expected 6,000 hour service life. At current use rates, the TF-33 will need another major overhaul around the turn of the century. Additionally, since the TF-33 does not meet FAA Stage III noise requirements for the year 2000, more time and money must be expended to ensure compliance.

The U.S. Air Force has also acknowledged that the cockpit of the KC-135 must be modernized. The Air Force issued a solicitation for PACER CRAG in May 1995. This upgrade will provide new compass and radar and add global positioning system in the KC-135 cockpit. PSD has submitted a proposal to be the prime contractor for this activity which includes engineering, and manufacturing development, prototype installation, test and evaluation, and kit production. Contract award was expected in October 1995.

Additional cockpit improvements beyond the PACER CRAG program, would maximize crew efficiency and reduce operation and maintenance costs. With extensive experience in avionics integration, Boeing could offer a new cockpit for the KC-135 that would increase avionics reliability, while allowing the potential for reducing the number of crew members. The newer cockpit would be part of an avionics modernization for the airplane.

The existing cockpit consists of electro-mechanical equipment of 1950s technology with individual control panels and instrumentation distributed throughout. Failure rates are high and repair capability has been restricted significantly as technology has changed. Not only are repairs to the KC-135's existing avionics suite costly for the Air Force, but they also mean more down-time for the tanker while repairs are made. Modem commercial airplane avionics are much more reliable than those aboard the KC-135.

Boeing believes that an avionics modernization program is essential to assure the KC-135 has the technology to perform its mission well in the years ahead. An integrated avionics system would be easier to operate and maintain. The new digital cockpit would include an upgraded multiplex data bus and integration software, integrating global positioning, ground collision avoidance, mission management and inertial navigation systems. Controls would include multi functional electronic displays and centralized control panels.

克里斯Chris

Specifications
Primary Function:	Aerial refueling
Contractor:	Boeing Military Airplanes
Power Plant:	Four CFM-International F108-CF-100 turbofans
Thrust:	22,224 pounds (10,000.8 kilograms) each engine
Length:	136 feet, 3 inches (40.8 meters)
Height:	38 feet, 4 inches (11.5 meters)
Wingspan:	130 feet, 10 inches (39.2 meters)
Speed:	Maximum speed at 30,000 feet (9,100 meters) 610 mph (Mach 0.93)
Ceiling:	50,000 feet (15,152 meters)
Weight:	119,231 pounds (53,654 kilograms) empty
Maximum Takeoff Weight:	322,500 pounds (145,125 kilograms)
Range:	11,192 miles (9,732 nautical miles) with 120,000 pounds (54,000 kilograms) of transfer fuel.
Crew:	Four or five; up to 80 passengers.
Date Deployed:	August 1965.
Unit Cost:	KC-135R, $53 million; KC-135E, $30.6 million; KC-135A, $26.1 million.
Inventory:	Active force, 457; Reserve, 30; ANG, 158.

克里斯Chris

克里斯Chris

(文章來自："同溫層油船"）

克里斯Chris

美KC-135R空中加油機(前)準備為幾架F-15C戰機加油。


美軍要把駐紮在日本沖繩普天間基地的12架KC-130型空中加油機遷移到鹿兒島鹿屋市的消息，日前驚醒了這座歷史上曾深陷戰爭的城市，引發了當地8000多市民的集會抗議。


美國媒體稱，美軍還將把夏威夷希凱姆空軍基地的KC-135型空中加油機轉移到鹿兒島，具體多少架尚未公佈。

　　近年來一直以旅遊勝地著稱的鹿兒島，眼看就要成為美國空軍在西太平洋的前哨陣地了。軍事專家認為，這個空中加油機基地的形成，意味著美軍將就此擁有一條威懾亞洲縱深的空中走廊。

空中加油機書寫持續作戰奇跡

　　從軍事的角度看，是否具備空中加油機是衡量一個國家空軍遠程作戰能力高低的重要標誌。空中加油機自從上世紀60年代在越南戰爭中被大規模應用以來，已經成為國際武器市場上的搶手貨。它的出現，使得空中打擊力量的作戰能力、作戰時間和作戰半徑有了長足的進步，因此被譽為“空中力量倍增器”。空中加油機對於空軍的意義，就像航空母艦對於海軍，是遠程作戰能力和戰略威懾能力最重要的構成要素。

　　如今，可以說沒有空中加油，便沒有現代化的空中作戰。在一些局部戰爭中，如英阿馬島之戰、美國入侵巴拿馬之戰、海灣戰爭、阿富汗戰爭和伊拉克戰爭中，空中加油機都發揮了無可替代的重要作用。1985年4月15日，美國空軍的18架F-111戰鬥轟炸機及3架EF-111電子反制機，從英國的空軍基地出發，途經北大西洋、直布羅陀海峽，穿越地中海上空到達利比亞，順利執行轟炸任務。從起飛到降落，連續飛行1萬多公里，其間如果不是經過了6次空中加油，飛機恐怕早就掉到海裏了。

克里斯Chris

在海灣戰爭中，空中加油機又為多國部隊贏得戰爭勝利立下了汗馬功勞。在這次戰爭中，美國空軍的KC-135和KC-10型加油機總共為多國部隊的飛機加油5.1萬多次，共輸送了7.1億升燃油，並且全部成功。海灣戰爭結束後，儘管各大媒體都爭著圍繞F-117、F-14、F-15、F-16等戰鬥機和精確制導武器進行連篇累牘的報道，視其為戰爭中的“英雄”。然而，制定作戰計劃的美軍專職人員們卻一致推空中加油機群為打贏戰爭的“領銜主角”。

　　美國是世界上擁有空中加油機數量最多、性能最先進的國家。目前全世界總共大約有800多架加油機，而美國就佔絕大多數，此次準備部署到鹿兒島的兩種加油機均是美軍現役主力機型。KC-135E號稱“同溫層油船”，飛機最大載油量達11.8萬升，加油速度為每分鐘3400升，可同時為30架飛機加油。目前，美軍準備從沖繩縣普天間機場轉移的是F型和R型的KC-130空中加油機，其性能比KC-135要稍遜一籌。不過根據美國海軍陸戰隊的計劃，從2008年開始，它們將被更為先進的J型KC-130新型空中加油機取代。這種新型空中加油機的飛行半徑達800公里，加油容量是K型和R型機的1.5倍，加油速度提高了3倍。此外，新型機的最高時速、續航距離、夜間飛行能力等性能也都有大幅提高。

克里斯Chris

鹿兒島自古是軍事重地

　　可以肯定，這兩種加油機部署到位後，美空中力量深入亞洲的能力將大大增強，因為鹿兒島被認為是日本領土上僅次於沖繩縣之後進出東南亞以及亞洲腹地最便捷的地點。

　　鹿兒島位於北緯27度1分至32度18分、東經128度24分至132度13分之間，是日本九州島的最南端，臨近中國大陸、台灣以及南韓等國家和地區。鹿兒島擁有美麗的亞熱帶風光，是日本重要的旅遊勝地之一。這裡所有土地幾乎都被火山灰覆蓋，擁有著名的櫻島活火山奇觀，還有2643公里長的海岸線及眾多島嶼。位於鹿兒島南部的種子島國家航太中心，是日本最大的航太發射場。由於地理位置敏感，這個美麗的島嶼在歷史上頗不平靜。1863年英國軍艦炮轟鹿兒島，揭開了日本痛棄閉關鎖國政策、開始明治維新的序幕。幕府時期，這裡成為日本西南內戰的主戰場。太平洋戰爭時，鹿兒島鹿屋是日本海軍的特攻基地，甚至1941年日本偷襲珍珠港，執行任務的突擊編隊也是在鹿兒島進行模擬訓練的。

　　現在，鹿兒島依然是日本海上自衛隊的重要基地。自衛隊在這裡建立了大型監視雷達站，巨型的球狀天線群可以截收來自各個方向的極其微弱的電子資訊，其探測距離可達上千公里，可以捕捉到來自中國境內的各種無線電信號。

　　軍事分析家指出，鹿兒島北、西、南三面都是美軍眼中的敏感地點：北韓半島、台灣海峽、南沙群島。美軍部署在這裡的主力戰機F-15和F-16在空中加油機支援下，可以很輕鬆地進入上述敏感地區。從夏威夷到鹿兒島3200多海裏的前移，使得美軍加油機對作戰飛機的支援成本大大降低，而且作戰效能和作戰效率大幅提高。這樣的一個加油機基地，不僅把台灣海峽、北韓半島、南海地區納入美軍的作戰半徑之內，就連俄羅斯遠東地區、南亞次大陸等區域也可能成為美軍的“空中走廊”。

克里斯Chris

美空軍在亞洲展開西遷行動

　　如果說將沖繩縣普天間基地的美軍空中加油部隊遷移到鹿屋，是在沖繩民眾強烈抗議之下不得已而為之的，那麼從夏威夷向鹿兒島增派加油機，就將美國空軍力量有意識向西太平洋遷移的戰略暴露無遺。據日本防衛廳透露，美國政府最初還要求將駐日美軍空中加油機部隊遷移至本州最南端的山口縣駐日美軍基地，但日本政府考慮到這有可能影響到駐日美軍基地調整計劃，才沒有同意美國政府的要求。

　　此次空中加油機的部署調整，只是美軍增強遠程打擊能力、強化在亞太地區戰略存在的系列步驟中的一步。在去年年底，美軍太平洋空軍司令保羅·赫斯特就在關島公開宣佈，美空軍正在考慮在關島永久部署12架最先進的波音公司製造的767大型加油機，預計在2010年之前將可完成加油機在關島的輪換部署，從而實現永久部署的目標。

　　美國空中加油機在西太平洋的悄悄增多，顯然不是一個巧合。人們或許可以從不久前美國五角大樓向國會提交的《四年防務評估報告》中找到答案。這份報告明確提出，要將美軍的戰略重心從大西洋向太平洋轉移。由於美軍認為在太平洋海區缺少“足夠的軍事基地”，而亞洲戰區又相距遙遠，因此五角大樓特別強調要求美軍具備“遠距離持續作戰”的能力。五角大樓認為，考慮到“未來東亞地區政治格局可能出現的變化”，一旦美軍借助於日本、南韓等國的軍事基地實現對東亞的控制出現難度，就只有大幅提高遠程打擊能力，否則就無法有效控制這一地區。同時，遠程攻擊力量的加強也會增大美國對恐怖分子和所謂“無賴國家”的威懾作用。報告提出了加強美軍在太平洋地區作戰能力的具體措施，同時也擬定了儘快提高遠程進攻能力的目標。